Though many States have their very own wetland rules, the Federal Authorities bears a serious duty for regulating wetlands. The 5 Federal companies that share the first duty for defending wetlands embody the Division of Protection, U.S. Military Corps of Engineers (Corps); the U.S. Environmental Safety Company (EPA); the Division of the Inside, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS); the Division of Commerce, Nationwide Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); and the Division of Agriculture, Pure Sources Conservation Service (NRCS) (previously the Soil Conservation Service). Every of those companies has a special mission that’s mirrored within the implementation of the company’s authority for wetland safety. The Corps’ duties are associated to navigation and water provide. The EPA’s authorities are associated to defending wetlands primarily for his or her contributions to the chemical, bodily, and organic integrity of the Nation’s waters. The FWS’s authorities are associated to managing fish and wildlife-game species and threatened and endangered species. Wetland authority of NOAA lies in its cost to handle the Nation’s coastal assets. The NRCS focuses on wetlands affected by agricultural actions.
Regardless of the present recognition of wetland advantages, many doubtlessly conflicting pursuits nonetheless exist, equivalent to that between the pursuits of landowners and most people and between builders and conservationists. Belated recognition of wetland advantages and disagreement on tips on how to defend them has led to discrepancies in native, State, and Federal pointers. Discrepancies in Federal packages are obvious in desk 6, which reveals packages that encourage conversion of wetlands and people who discourage conversion of wetlands. Conflicting pursuits are the supply of a lot stress and controversy in present wetland safety coverage. Though makes an attempt are being made to reconcile a few of these variations, many insurance policies could have to be modified to attain consistency.
Regardless of all the federal government laws, insurance policies, and packages, wetlands won’t be protected if the rules should not enforced. Maybe the easiest way to guard wetlands is to coach the general public of their advantages. If the general public doesn’t acknowledge the advantages of wetland preservation, wetlands won’t be preserved. Safety can be achieved solely by the cooperative efforts of residents.
FEDERAL WETLAND PROTECTION PROGRAMS AND POLICIES
The Clear Water Act
The Federal Authorities regulates, by Part 404 of the Clear Water Act, a few of the actions that happen in wetlands. The Part 404 program originated in 1972, when Congress considerably amended the Federal Water Air pollution Management Act and created a Federal regulatory plan to management the discharge of dredged or fill supplies into wetlands and different waters of america. Discharges are generally related to tasks equivalent to channel building and upkeep, port improvement, fills to create dry land for improvement websites close to the water, and water-control tasks equivalent to dams and levees. Other forms of actions, such because the straightening of river channels to hurry the circulate of water downstream and clearing land, are regulated as Part 404 discharges if they contain discharges of greater than incidental quantities of soil or different supplies into wetlands or different waters.
The assessment course of for a Part 404 allow is proven in figure 39. After discover and alternative for a public listening to, the Corps’ District Engineer might subject or deny the allow. The District Engineer should adjust to the EPA’s Part 404(b)(1) Tips and should contemplate the general public curiosity when evaluating a proposed allow. 4 questions associated to the rules are thought of throughout a assessment of an utility:
- Is the proposed discharge the least damaging sensible different?
- Does the proposed discharge adjust to different environmental requirements or rules?
- Will the proposed discharge considerably degrade wetlands?
- Have all the suitable and sensible steps been taken to reduce potential hurt to the wetlands?
Wetland mitigation is usually required, and if required, the allow applicant might want to develop a particular, detailed plan.
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| Determine 39. Overview of a typical U.S. Military Corps of Engineers assessment course of for Part 404 dredge-and-fill allow request. (Supply: Modified from J.A. Kusler, Our Nationwide Wetland Heritage: A Safety Guidebook. Copyright (c) 1983 by the Environmental Legislation Institute. Reprinted with permission.) |
| Desk 6. Federal packages which have important results on wetlands in america. A, Rules encouraging wetland conversion. B, Rules discouraging or stopping wetland conversion. C, Acquisitions discouraging or stopping wetland conversion. D ,Different insurance policies and packages stopping or discouraging wetland conversion. | ||
| [Abbreviations: AFA, All Federal Agencies; ASCS, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service; BLM, Bureau of Land Management; Corps, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; CWS, Canadian Wildlife Service; DOD, Department of Defense; DOE, Department of Energy; DOI, Department of the Interior; DOT, Department of Transportation; EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency; FEMA, Federal Emergency Management Agency; FERC, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission; FmHA, Farmer’s Home Administration; FWS, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; GSA, General Services Administration; IRS, Internal Revenue Service; USCG, U.S. Coast Guard; USDA, U.S. Department of Agriculture; USFS, U.S. Forest Service] | ||
| A, ENCOURAGING WETLAND CONVERSION | ||
| Program or Act | Implementing company | Impact of program |
| Govt Order 12630, Constitutional Takings | AFA | Supplies a assessment course of for companies to guard towards unintentional “takings” of personal property. |
| Federal-Freeway Act of 1968 | DOT | Freeway building can have an effect on wetlands at each stage. Wetlands are sometimes prime websites for highways. |
| Federal Crop Insurance coverage | USDA | Not directly encourages farmers to position ceaselessly inundated areas, together with wetlands, into manufacturing. |
| Federal Livestock Grazing | USFS, BLM | Overgrazing promotes the lack of riparian habitat. |
| Flood Management Act of 1944 (P.L. 78-534) | Corps | Licensed varied flood-control tasks ensuing in wetland destruction. |
| Nationwide Flood Insurance coverage Program | FEMA | Encourages improvement in flood plains, which include wetlands, by offering low-cost Federal Insurance coverage. |
| Cost-in-Variety (PIK) Program | USDA | Not directly encourages farmers to position beforehand unfarmed areas, together with wetlands, into manufacturing. |
| Small Reclamation Initiatives Acts of 1956 (70 Stat. 1044) | DOI | Encourages State and native participation in small western reclamation tasks, which might destroy riparian habitat. |
| Floor Mining Management and Reclamation Act (P.L. 95-87), (1977) | DOI | Establishes a program for regulating floor mining and reclaiming coal-mined lands, together with wetlands, beneath the Workplace of Floor Mining, Reclamation, and Enforcement |
| Floor Transportation Income Act of 1991(P.L. 102-240) | DOT | Transportation tasks instantly and not directly destroy wetlands. |
| U.S. Tax Code | IRS | Encourages farmers to empty and clear wetlands by tax deductions and credit for improvement actions. |
| Water Sources Improvement Act of 1976, 1986, 1988, 1990 (P.L.’s 94-587, 99-662, 100-676, 101-640) | Corps | Water improvement tasks instantly and not directly destroy wetlands. |
| B, DISCOURAGING OR PREVENTING WETLAND CONVERSION–Rules | ||
| Program or Act | Implementing company | Impact of program |
| Complete Environmental Response Compensation and Legal responsibility Act (Superfund) (P.L. 96-510) (1980) | AFA | Establishes legal responsibility of the U.S. Authorities for damages to pure assets over which the U.S. has sovereign rights. Requires the President to designate Federal officers to behave as trustees for pure assets, and to conduct pure useful resource injury assessments. |
| *Coastal Obstacles REsources Act (P.L. 96-348) (1982) | NOAA | Designates varied undeveloped coastal barrier islands for inclusion within the Coastal Barrier Sources System. Designated areas are ineligible for Federal monetary help that will support improvement. |
| *Coastal Zone Administration Act (P.L. 92-583) (1972) | NOAA | Supplies Federal funding for wetlands packages in most coastal States, together with the preparation of coastal zone administration plans. |
| Estuary Safety Act | DOI | Licensed the examine and stock of estuaries, and the Nice Lakes, and supplied for administration of designated estuaries between DOI and the States. |
| *Federal Water Air pollution Management (P.L. 92-500) (Clear Water Act) Part 404 (1972) | Corps, EPA, FWS, NMFS | Regulates many actions that contain the disposal of dredged and fill supplies in waters of america, together with many wetlands. |
| Nationwide Flood Insurance coverage Program | FEMA | Encourages improvement in flood plains, which include wetlands, by offering low-cost Federal Insurance coverage. |
| Federal Water Challenge Recreation Act (P.L. 89-72) (1965) | DOI, Corps | Recreation and fish and wildlife enhancement should be thought of by Federal water tasks. Authorizes Federal funds for buying land for waterfowl refuges. |
| Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act of 1956 | DOI | Authorizes the event and distribution of fish and wildlife data and the event of insurance policies and procedures referring to fish and wildlife. |
| Migratory Hen Conservation Act (45 Stat. 1222) (1929) | FWS | Established a fee to approve the acquisition of migratory fowl habitat. |
| Nationwide Wildlife Refuge Acts (quite a few acts) | FWS | Quite a few statutes set up refuges, lots of which include important wetland acreage. |
| Nationwide Environmental Coverage Act of 1969 (P.L. 91-190) | AFA | Requires the preparation of an environmental influence assertion of all main Federal actions considerably affecting the setting. |
| Ramsar Conference (Treaty), adopted 1973, enforced from 1975 | FWS | Conference maintains a listing of wetlands of worldwide significance and encourages the smart use of wetlands. |
| Rivers and Harbors Act of 1938 (52 Stat. 802) | Corps | Supplies that “due regard” be given to wildlife conservation in planning Federal water tasks. |
| Rivers and Harbors Appropriation Act of 1938 (30 Stat. 1151) | Corps | Prohibits the unauthorized obstruction or alteration of navigable waters. |
| Watershed Safety and Flood Prevention Act (68 Stat. 666) (1954) | FWS, NRCS | Authorizes the FWS to research wildlife conservation on NRCS small watershed tasks. |
| Wild and Scenic Rivers Act, (P.L. 90-542) (1968) | DOI, USDA | Protects designated river segments from damming and different alterations with out a allow. |
| Wilderness Act of 1964 (78 Stat. 890) | DOI, USDA | Requires a assessment of Federal lands for inclusion within the Nationwide Wilderness Preservation System. |
| * Mentioned in textual content. |
| C, DISCOURAGING OR PREVENTING WETLAND CONVERSION– Acquisitions | ||
| Program or Act | Implementing company | Impact of program |
| Coastal Wetland Planning, Safety and Restoration Act (P.L. 101-646) (1990) | Corps, FWS, EPA, NMFS | Supplies for interagency wetlands restoration and conservation planning and acquisition in Louisiana, different coastal States, and the Belief Territories. |
| Emergency Wetlands Resourcers Act of 1986 (P.L. 99-645) | FWS | Pays money owed incurred by FWS for wetlands acquisition, and gives extra income sources. |
|
Federal Assist in Wildlife Restoration Act (1937) (Ch. 899, 50 Stat. 917) Fish and Wildlife Conservation Act (P.L. 96-366) (1980) > |
FWS FWS |
Supplies grants to States for buying, restoring, and sustaining wildlife areas Identifies land and water within the Western Hemisphere important for migratory nongame birds. |
| Land and Water Consevation Fund Act (1964) (P.L. 88-578) | FWS, NPS | Acquires wildlife areas. |
| Lea Act (62 Stat. 238) (1948) | FWS | Authorizes the buying and creating of varied waterfowl administration areas in California. |
| Migratory Hen Looking and Conservation Stamps (1934) (Ch. 71, 48 Stat. 452) | FWS | Acquires wetland easements utilizing revenues type charges paid by hunters for duck stamps. |
| North American Waterfowl Administration Plan (1986) | FWS, CWS | Establishes a plan for managing waterfowl assets by varied strategies, equivalent to buying wetlands. |
| North American Wetlands Conservation Act (1989) (P.L. 101-233) | DOT | Authorizes funding for wetland mitigation banks for State departments of transportation. |
| Switch of Sure Actual Property for Wildlife Conservation Functions Act (62 Stat. 240) (1948) | GSA, DOI | Permits the GSA to switch property to DOI, or States, for wildlife conservation. |
| U.S. Tax Code Tax Reform Act of 1986 (P.L. 99-514) | IRS | Supplies deductions for donors of wetlands and to some nonprofit organizations. |
| Water Financial institution Act (1970) (P.L. 91-559) | ASCS | Leases wetlands and adjoining uplands from farmers for waterfowl habitat for 10-year intervals. |
| Wetlands Mortgage Act (1961) (P.L. 87-383) | FWS | Supplies interest-free loans for wetland acquisition and easements. |
| D, DISCOURAGING OR PREVENTING WETLAND CONVERSION– Different Insurance policies and Packages | ||
| Program or Act | Implementing company | Impact of program |
| Endangered Species Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-205) | FWS | Supplies for the designation and safety of wildlife, fish, and plant species which are in peril of extinction. |
| *Govt Order 11990, Safety of Wetlands (1977) | AFA | Requires Federal companies to reduce impacts of Federal actions on wetlands. |
| *Govt Order 11988, Safety of Floodplains (1977) |
FWS AFA |
Requires Federal companies to reduce impacts of Federal actions on flood plains. |
| Govt Order 12580, Superfund Implementation (1987) | DOI | Directs DOI to develop guidelines for assessing damages beneath CERCLA (Complete Environmental Response Compensation and Liabilities Act) as a pure assets trustee. |
| Federal Noxious Weed Act (P.L. 93-629) (1975) | DOI, USDA, DOE, DOD | Authorizes controlling the unfold of noxious weeds on Federal lands. |
| Federal Energy Act (41 Stat. 1063) (1920) | FERC | FERC will cooperate with different Federal companies in assessing proposed energy tasks, equivalent to dams. FERC should contemplate safety of fish and wildlife assets. |
| Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act (1965) (P.L. 89-72) | FWS | Requires Federal companies to seek the advice of with FWS earlier than issuing permits for many water-resource tasks. |
| Meals, Agriculture, Conservation, and Commerce Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-624) | NRCS | Wetland Reserve Program purchases perpetual nondevelopment easements on farmed wetlands. Subsidizes restoration of croplands to wetlands. |
| *Meals Safety Act of 1985 (Swampbuster) (P.L. 99-198) |
ASCS, FWS FmHA |
“Swampbuster” program suspends agricultural subsidies for farmers who convert wetlands to agriculture. Conservation Easements program permits FmHA to get rid of some farm money owed in change for long-term easements that defend wetlands and different areas. |
| Nationwide Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 (P.L. 89-669) | DOI | Supplies the rules for managing Nationwide Wildlife Refuges. |
| Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Management Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-646). | FWS, USCG, EPA, Corps, NOAA | Created a Federal program to stop and management the unfold of species which are aquatic nuisances. |
| Oil Air pollution Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-380) | DOE, DOI, NOAA | Enhanced the response to grease spills and required pure useful resource injury assessments. |
| Tax Deductions for Conservation Easements (Part 6 of P.L. 96-541) | IRS | Permits taxpayers to take a deduction for a certified actual property curiosity contributed to a conservation group for conservation functions. |
| U.S. Tax Code Reform Act of 1986 (P.L. 99-514) | IRS | Eliminates incentives for clearing land. Deductible conservation expenditures should be per wetlands safety. Capital positive aspects on transformed wetlands handled as earnings. |
| Water Sources Improvement Act of 1976, 1986, 1988, 1990, (P.L.’s 94-587, 99-662, 100-676, 101-640) | Corps | States that future mitigation plans for Federal water tasks ought to embody “in sort” mitigation for bottom-land hardwood forests. |
The FWS, NOAA, and State fish and wildlife companies, because the organizations in possession of a lot of the nation’s organic knowledge, have necessary advisory roles within the Part 404 program. The FWS and NOAA (if a coastal space is concerned) present the Corps and the EPA with feedback in regards to the potential environmental results of pending Part 404 permits. Different authorities companies, business, and the general public are invited to take part by public notices of allow purposes, hearings, or different information-collecting actions. Nevertheless, the general public curiosity assessment often doesn’t contain public remark except the allow is more likely to generate important public curiosity or if the potential penalties of the allow are anticipated to be important. All suggestions should be given full consideration by the Corps, however there isn’t a requirement that they should be acted upon. If the FWS or NOAA disagree with a allow authorised by a District Engineer, they will request that the allow be reviewed at a better degree throughout the Corps. Nevertheless, the Assistant Secretary of the Military has the unilateral proper to refuse all requests for greater degree opinions. The Assistant Secretary accepted the extra assessment of 16 of the 18 requested out of the overall 105,000 particular person permits issued between 1985 and 1992 (Schley and Winter, 1992).
As a result of many actions might trigger the discharge of dredged and fill supplies, and the potential results of those actions differ, the Corps has issued basic rules to cope with a variety of actions that might require a Part 404 allow. The Corps can forgo particular person allow assessment by issuing basic permits on a State, regional, or nationwide foundation. Common permits cowl particular classes of actions that the Corps determines could have minimal results on the aquatic setting, together with wetlands. Common permits are designed to permit actions with minimal results to start with little, if any, delay or paperwork. Common permits authorize roughly 75,000 actions yearly which may in any other case require a allow (U.S. Environmental Safety Company, 1991); nonetheless, most actions in wetlands should not coated by basic permits (Morris, 1991).
Not all strategies of altering wetlands are regulated by Part 404. Frequent strategies of altering wetlands are listed in desk 7. Unregulated strategies embody: wetland drainage, the reducing of ground-water ranges in areas adjoining to wetlands, everlasting flooding of current wetlands, deposition of fabric that’s not particularly outlined as dredged and fill materials by the Clear Water Act, and wetland vegetation removing (Workplace of Expertise Evaluation, 1984).
State authority over the Federal Part 404 program is a aim of the Clear Water Act. Assumption of authority from the EPA has been accomplished solely by Michigan and New Jersey. Beneath this association, the EPA is accountable for approving State assumptions and retains oversight of the State Part 404 program, and the Corps retains the navigable waters allow program (Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993). States can not subject permits over EPA’s objection, however EPA has the authority to waive its assessment for chosen classes of allow purposes. Few States have chosen to imagine the program, partially as a result of few Federal assets can be found to help States and assumption doesn’t embody navigable waters (World Wildlife Fund, 1992).
| Desk 7. Strategies of altering wetlands [Source: The Conservation Foundation, 1988, p. 15] |
|
| PHYSICAL | |
| Filling | including any materials to boost the underside degree of a wetland or to interchange the wetland with dry land |
| Draining | eradicating the water from a wetland by ditching, tiling, pumping, and so forth |
| Excavating | dredging and eradicating soil and vegetation from a wetland |
| Diverting water away | stopping the circulate of water right into a wetland by eradicating water upstream, reducing lake ranges, or reducing ground-water tables |
| Clearing | eradicating vegetation by burning, digging, utility of herbicide, scraping, mowing, or in any other case reducing |
| Flooding | elevating water ranges, both behind dams, by pumping, or in any other case channeling water right into a wetland |
| Diverting or withholding sediment | trapping sediment by setting up dams, channels, or different forms of tasks, thereby inhibiting wetland regeneration in pure deposition areas equivalent to deltas |
| Shading | putting pile-supported platforms or bridges over wetlands, inflicting vegetation to die due to a scarcity of enough daylight |
| Conducting actions in adjoining areas | disrupting the interactions between wetlands and adjoining land areas, or by the way affecting wetlands by actions at adjoining websites |
| CHEMICAL | |
| Altering nutrient ranges | rising or reducing nutrient ranges throughout the native water and or soil system, forcing wetland plant group modifications |
| Introducing toxics | including poisonous compounds to a wetland both deliberately (for instance, herbicide therapy to cut back vegetation) or unintentionally, adversely affecting wetland vegetation and animals |
| BIOLOGICAL | |
| Grazing | consumption and compaction of vegetation by home or wild animals |
| Disrupting pure populations | lowering populations of current species, introducing unique species, or in any other case disturbing resident organisms |
“Swampbuster”
Coastal Wetlands Safety Packages
The 1982 Coastal Obstacles Sources Act denies Federal subsidies for improvement inside undeveloped, unprotected coastal barrier areas, together with wetlands, designated as a part of the Coastal Barrier Sources System. Congress designates areas for inclusion within the Coastal Obstacles Useful resource System on the premise of a few of the following standards (Watzin, 1990):
- Measurement
- Improvement standing
- Composition
- Wind, wave, and tidal energies
- Related aquatic habitat, together with adjoining wetlands
Flood-Plain and Wetland Safety Orders
Govt Orders 11988, Floodplain Administration, and 11990, Safety of Wetlands, have been signed by President Carter in 1977. The function of those Govt Orders was to make sure safety and correct administration of flood plains and wetlands by Federal companies. The Govt Orders require Federal companies to think about the direct and oblique opposed results of their actions on flood plains and wetlands. This requirement extends to any Federal motion inside a flood plain or a wetland apart from routine upkeep of current Federal amenities and constructions. The Clinton administration has proposed revising Govt Order 11990 to direct Federal companies to think about wetland safety and restoration planning within the bigger scale watershed/ecosystem context.
WETLAND DELINEATION STANDARDS
MITIGATION
Wetland mitigation could be carried out instantly on a case-by-case onsite foundation, or by a banking system. Onsite mitigation requires {that a} developer create a wetland as shut as attainable to the location the place a wetland is to be destroyed. This often entails a one-to-one alternative.
A mitigation financial institution is a delegated wetland that’s created, restored, or enhanced to compensate for future wetland loss by improvement. It could be and often is positioned someplace apart from close to the location to be destroyed and constructed by somebody apart from the developer. The foreign money of a mitigation financial institution is the mitigation credit score. “Mitigation banks require techniques for valuing the compensation credit produced and for figuring out the sort and variety of credit wanted as compensation for any specific challenge. ***Mitigation financial institution credit score definitions are an try to determine these options [of wetland] which permit cheap approximations of alternative” (U.S. Military Corps of Engineers, 1994, p. 63). Wetland analysis strategies have been developed or are being developed to deal with the issue of evaluating two completely different wetlands in order that the degradation of one could be offset by the restoration, enhancement, or creation of the opposite and to assign both a qualitative or quantitative worth to every wetland. When shopping for the credit, builders pay a proportionate price towards buying, restoring, sustaining, enhancing, and monitoring the mitigation financial institution wetland. Banks cowl their prices by promoting credit to those that develop wetlands, or by receiving a taxpayer subsidy.
A examine of wetland mitigation practices in eight States revealed that in a lot of the States, extra wetland acreage was destroyed than was required to be created or restored, leading to a web lack of acreage when mitigation was included in a wetlands allow (Kentula and others, 1992). Lower than 55 % of the permits included monitoring of the challenge by web site go to. A restricted quantity of knowledge exists about the variety of acres of wetlands affected by mitigation or the effectiveness of specific mitigation methods due to the shortage of followup. A number of research in Florida reported that as many as 60 % of the required mitigation tasks have been by no means even began (Lewis, 1992). As well as, the mitigation wetland generally was not the identical sort of wetland that was destroyed, which resulted in a web lack of some wetland sorts. (See article “Wetland Restoration and Creation” on this quantity.)
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| Determine 40. Standing of 40 wetland mitigation tasks in south Florida. The common age of the tasks was lower than 3 years. (Supply: Modified from Mitsch and Gosselink, 1993.) |
RECENT PRESIDENTIAL WETLAND PROTECTION INITIATIVES
On August 25, 1993, President Clinton unveiled his new coverage for managing America’s wetland assets. This system was developed by the Interagency Working Group on Federal Wetlands Coverage, a bunch chaired by the White Home Workplace on Environmental Coverage with contributors from the EPA, the Corps, the Workplace of Administration and Price range, and the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, Vitality, Inside, Justice, and Transportation. The Administration’s proposals combine measures that tighten restrictions on actions affecting wetlands in some instances and calm down restrictions in different areas. The Clinton coverage endorses the aim of “no web loss” of wetlands; nonetheless, it clearly refers to “no web loss” of wetland acreage quite than “no web loss” of wetland capabilities.
The Clinton coverage requires avoiding future wetland losses by incorporating wetland safety into State and native authorities watershed-management planning. This new coverage additionally considerably expands using mitigation banks to compensate for federally authorised wetland improvement or loss.
Clinton’s proposals relaxed a few of the present restrictions on agricultural results on wetlands and elevated funding for incentives to protect and restore wetlands on agricultural lands. The administration coverage excluded 53 million acres of “prior transformed croplands” from regulation as wetlands. Additionally, authority over wetland packages affecting agriculture was shifted from the FWS to the NRCS and proposed elevated funding for the Wetlands Reserve Program, which pays farmers to protect and restore wetlands on their property.
References Cited
For Further Data:
Todd H. Votteler,
4312 Larchmont Avenue,
Dallas, TX 75205
Thomas A. Muir,
U.S. Geological Survey,
413 Nationwide Heart,
Reston, VA 22092